All these external factors constitute context which helps the language speaker to interpret meaning in appropriate manner. Schiffrin categorically declares that: Context is thus a world filled with people producing utterances: people who have social, cultural and personal identities, knowledge, beliefs, goals and wants and who interact with one another in various socially and culturally defined situations.
Context of situation is indispensable in the interpretation and understanding of discourse Daramola A text occurs in a context of situation. There are three components of context of situation according to Halliday. They are field, tenor and mode. The three components help us to focus our attention on a particular speech situation by making the features of a text explicit. Each of these components makes the study of discourse explicit. Field of discourse refers to the activity that is going on and the purpose that language is performing in context of the activity.
Tenor of discourse refers to the interaction among the participants especially the social relationship among them. Mode of discourse refers to the role of language in communication particularly as a channel or medium of communication.
The mode can either be spoken or written. Cohesion Cohesion is the relations of meaning which exist within the text and justify it as a text. Cohesion is lexical and grammatical unity within a text. Without cohesion, a text will not make meaning. The elements that are used to achieve semantic unity in the text are called cohesive devices. Halliday and Hasan identify five major types of cohesive devices: references, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion.
Each of these may further be subdivided. Let us briefly look at them. Reference Reference is the relation between an element of a text and something else which refers to it for interpretation in a given context. Words used as references do not have their own meaning; we can only infer their meaning by referring to something else in the text.
There are four major types of reference. First, anaphoric is making reference to what has been said earlier in the text.
Second, cataphoric is the reference made to what will be said later in the text, that is, forward referencing. Third, endophoricis reference within the text; it covers both anaphoric and cataphoric. Fourth, exophoric is the reference to something outside the text. Substitution It is the replacing of a word, phrase or clause with a word in the next clause to avoid repetition. For example: Bunmi: I won scholarship to study in London.
Taju: I know it already. Ellipsis It is the deletion of certain grammatical elements from a structure for cohesive purpose. Such grammatical elements are referred to as redundant elements, but they can be uniquely recovered.
For example: Janet: Did you see the money I left on the table? James: No. They are cohesive devices used to link two successive clauses or sentences. Other scholars mention additive, temporal, adversative, casual and continuative relations of conjunction Onadeko Lexical cohesion Lexical relationship exists when lexical items have a structural relationship.
Lexical items are used as a cohesive device when the features of words and group of words are used to create relationships among the words. There are two types of lexical cohesion: reiteration and collocation. Reiteration simply means doing or saying the same thing several times. It may be done through the use of repetition, synonymy, hyponymy and antonymy. Once the first item is mentioned, it is easy to mark out what follows.
For example: husband and Coherence Coherence is what enables a text to make sense to people. It does not exist in language but in people. It is people who determine whether what they read makes sense or not because they try to arrive at an interpretation which is line with their experience. It is possible for a text to make sense without cohesive ties. Such text has coherence but lacks cohesion.
A: I am hungry. B: There is no money. C: I will wait. The text above still makes sense despite that there are no cohesive ties to join them. Coherence can be achieved through cause and effect, contiguity in time and space, and associatives. Literary discourse Literary discourse is a text with literary features. It may be dramatic, prosaic or poetic. Each of the genres of literature has its peculiar stylistic features. Language is used as a vehicle for literature because every literary work is presented in language either in oral or written form, therefore, every literary work is a form of discourse.
Stylistics has prepared a ground where language and literature interact. Any literary discourse can be analyzed through any discourse analytical approach to investigate how language is used by the writer in the social context because literary writers write to communicate social, economic, political and religious issues in their community to society as a whole. Approaches to discourse analysis There are various approaches which can be applied in doing analysis of discourse.
These approaches are both theoretical and methodical. Six of these approaches: pragmatics, speech acts, semiotics, ethnography of communication,conversation analysis and interactional sociolinguistics are examined briefly below.
Pragmatics Pragmatics is the study of meaning of language use in context. It does not take cognisance of formal properties of language construction which determine its grammaticality, but meaning derived from how utterance is used and its relation and its relation to the social context in which it is used.
Pragmatics is different from semantics which is the study of meaning of language. It looks at the aspect of meaning and language use that is dependent on the speaker and the listener Wales , Yule 1. He looks at the meaning in the context of discourse between the participants, that is, communicative meaning.
Pragmatics has some basic principles that everyone familiar with it must know in order to apply it. They are explained below. Utterance and context: Utterance is a unit of discourse or speech. It is made in a context. Context is all physical, social and cultural situations that surround discourse. Utterance must be considered within its context before meaning can be derived.
Implicature: This is meaning or something implied in conversational context which is distinct from what is said. Entailment: It is logical implication. Entailments are deductions or inferences made from utterances to help us interpret them successfully. Presupposition: It is the background knowledge or belief shared by the participants in discourse which makes themto understand the appropriate context of discourse.
Deixis: It is the use of reference items in utterances, and such items depend on the context of the utterance. There are different kinds of deixis which are: discourse deixis, personal deixis, place deixis, time deixis and social deixis.
Speech acts Speech acts theory began with the Oxford philosopher, J. Austin in the s. It was expounded as a series of William James lecture that Austin gave at Harvard University in The series of the twelve lectures was published in with title How to Do Things with Words. The crux of the theory is that people perform action when they make an utterance. He distinguishes between performative utterances and constative utterances. Performative utterances perform various acts such as declaring, ordering, confirming, denying offering, permitting, advising, promising, thanking, condoling etc.
Verbs are the strength of performative clauses. Performative verbs are the verbs that perform the acts stated in the utterances. Some of them are: authorize, order, advise, instruct, accept, name, declare, summon, sentence, sanction, apologize, christen, convict, query, swear, reject etc.
He later included that issuing an utterance in a speech situation is the most important factor Austin There are two conditions underlying speech acts according to Austin; they are text the utterance made to perform an act and context what makes an utterance true or appropriate. It is the context that determines whether an utterance is qualified to act in a particular situation.
These conditions are given by J. The speaker must be the person that is qualified to make certain utterance in a particular occasion for the utterance to have effect. The participants must be appropriate people and the circumstances must be appropriate also.
All the participants must carry out the conventional procedure carefully completely while the listener should carry out the appropriate action after the speech. All the participants must have what they are required to have by convention before they can perform speech acts.
The participants should be ready to do whatever they are required to do. If these conditions are fulfilled, speech acts can then take place. There are three major acts proposed by Austin and Searle: locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts.
The two of them have a convergent point on the three speech acts performed by the speaker through utterances which are: Locutionary act: production of a meaningful utterance, Illocutionary act: an utterance issued with conventional communicative force achieved, Perlocutionary act: the actual effect achieved y the utterance especially on the hearer. Semiotics The term semiotics originated from a Greek word semeiotikos which is concerned with the observation signs. The adjective semiotic was coined by the English philosopher, John Locke, in the early seventeenth century Daramola Semiotics is a discipline that deals with the study and analysis of signs and symbols found in all forms of communication, that is, language both spoken and written, gestures, clothing, billboards, human and animal behaviour.
Charles Sander Pierce and Ferdinand de Saussure contributed to semiotics at its formation stage. The term semiology was coined by de Saussure, which he called the study of life of the sign in society. Semiotics is the study of communicative power of signs and codes. It is another approach to discourse because human language is a system of signs and codes. The group members are able to analyze the codes and interpret the message.
Saussure considers sign relation as dyadic, that is, the relationship between the sign and the concept. This may also be called signifier and signified. The signifier is the sign given while the signified is the referent of the sign. The three objects of semiosis are the sign, its object and its interpretant.
The interpretant stands between the sign and its object because he is the one who analyzes the sign to relate it to the appropriate object in the physical entity.
They are iconic, indexical and symbolic relationships. Iconic relationship is a straight forward relationship between an icon and the object it denotes. An icon is a sign which refers to the object it denotes either in figure, shape, colour, appearance and other characteristics. For example, shape of a man represents human being. Indexical relationship is when one thing denotes another thing entirely, but there is a relationship of effect between the sign and the object.
The gathered cloud is an index of expectation of rain. Smoke is also an index of fire. Symbolic relationship is purely arbitrary. There is no clear relationship between a symbol and its object in real life. It is purely conventional. Symbols are tokens of types not the exact things. Symbols are not interpretable in sacrosanct manner. Colour red that means stop in traffic light may mean danger or love in other contexts.
Signs are interpretable according to social conventions. Ethnography of communication Ethnography is a branch of anthropology which deals with descriptive study of living cultures.
It does not work on existing data or based on the outcome of previous researches. It breaks new ground, gets fresh data through participant observations and interviews, and generates new theory to explore how people think, believe and behave with each other in local time and space Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Third edition It is applicable to linguistic study in the area of language learning and use to refer to the observation and description of naturally occurring language, for example, between mother and child especially where a strong cultural element is involved in the research.
Ethnography of communication is an approach to discourse analysis to study the place of language in culture and society. It was developed by Hyme in his series of papers written in the and s Hyme a: It is an approach that is based on anthropology and linguistics.
It creates a unified integrated framework in which communication has a central role in both anthropological and linguistic studies Schiffrin It is concerned with the study of ways of speaking in cultural contexts. It is of the opinion that speakers of a language do not only have grammatical competence of their language, but also as cultural members, they have communicative competence. At the same time, they share cultural knowledge of the rules about how to interact appropriately in every situation van Dijk The ethnographers of communication analyze communicative patterns by using the method of participant observation in order to discover how members of a culture know how to make, and how to communicate the interpretation of the sense they make in their relationship through language.
In a nutshell, ethnography of communication investigates the place of language in culture and society, and reflects the fact that culture itself encompasses totality of knowledge and practices in society. Conversation analysis Conversation is oral or spoken discourse which can be recorded for further studies. It is naturally occurring utterances among participants in a social setting which follow the social rules of organizing communication.
It is actual social talk. Conversation analysis is an approach to discourse from sociology which seeks to discover the methods that members of a society use to produce a sense of social order, and conversation is a source of much of our social order Schiffrin It is also called talk in interaction.
It was introduced by Schegloff, Sacks and Jefferson in the early s. It is concerned with the problem of social order, that is, how language creates social context, and how social context creates language. It is an approach to discourse that lays emphasis on context, and the relevance of context is on text. It considers how participants in a conversation construct systematic solutions to recurrent organizational problems of talk, and the solutions come through the close analysis of the sequential progression of talk Schiffrin The basic premises of conversation analysis are i.
Language is a form of social interaction; ii. It posits that verbal interactions are both structurally organized and contextually oriented. It is the duty of the analysts to elucidate the structures and determine how they are interrelated Heritage There are mechanisms to help in the organization of conversation.
One of them is turn-taking, which is the method of allocating floor in conversation. A person speaks at a time in conversation and allows others to speak when his turn is over by giving a cue. It is the basic characteristic of normal conversation which can be done either by appointing the next speaker or the next speaker just take the floor without being appointed, or the current speaker continues if the next speaker refuses to take the floor Coulthard 59, Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson Another one is adjacency pair which is a unit of conversation that contains two utterances in adjacent produced by different speakers where they take one turn after another in a sequence.
The sequence may contain question and answer pair, greeting and response pair, request and acceptance or rejection pair, apology and acceptance pair and so on.
There is also insertion sequence which is a sequence of turns that intervenes the first and the second parts of the adjacency pair. It is used as a delay tactics when people do not want to provide a direct response to an elicitation until they are sure of what to say.
There is also a repair mechanism employed when there is an error in communication. There may also be overlapping which must be avoided.
Interactional sociolinguistics Interactional sociolinguistics is an interpretative linguistic approach developed by John Gumperz to analyze real time processes in face to face encounters Gumperz a: vii. He employs contextualization cues which are signalling mechanisms of language and behaviour, both verbal and non-verbal signs, that relate the utterance to the contextual knowledge, which contributes to the presuppositions necessary for the inference of the meaning of the utterance Gumperz a: The approach focuses on how people from different cultural backgrounds may share grammatical knowledge of a language but contextualize what someone said differently in a way that different messages are produced from it and understood.
He views language as a socially and culturally constructed symbol system that is in different ways reflect macro-level of social meaning, that is, group identity and status difference, and create micro-level of social meaning, that is, what a person is saying and doing at a particular moment.
Speakers are members of socio-cultural groups. The manner in which we use language reflects our group identity and continues to reveal who we are; what we want to communicate and how we want to communicate Schiffrin The focal points of Gumperz are culture, society, language, the self and contextualization cue which relates to another two concepts: contextual presupposition and situated inference. Erving Goffman is another major contributor to the approach. He focuses on social interaction which complements Gumperz situated inference instead of analysis of language.
He describes how language is situated in particular circumstances of social life, and how it affects the circumstances. What he does is that he places language and other communicative sign systems in the same social and interpersonal contexts which provide the presuppositions that gumperz finds to be a crucial background for the interpretation of meaning.
The point of convergence between the two scholars is that they provide a unity to interactional sociolinguistics by showing the interaction between self and others, and context.
Goffman contribution on the other hand focuses on how the organization of social life provides contexts for both the conduct of self and communication with another person to make sense. The two of them have been able to provide an approach to discourse which focuses on situated meaning. Works cited Austin, J.
How to Do Things with Words. Berry, M. Studies in Discourse Analysis. London: Routledge. Bloor, Thomas and Bloor, Meriel London: Arnold. Brown, G. And Yule, G. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Coulthard, M. An Introduction to Discourse Analysis. New Edition New York: Longman. Advances in Spoken Discourse Analysis. Crystal, D. Introducing Linguistics. Harlow: Penguin. Daramola, Adeyemi. The English Compendium 1 and 2. Lagos: Dept. Eco, V. Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language.
London: Macmillan. Egbe, Daniel. Excellence in Written and Spoken English. Lagos: Tinson. Fasold, R. Sociolinguistics of Language. Oxford: Blackwell. Gumperz, J. Cambridge: CUP.
Halliday, M. A Course in Spoken English Intonation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cohesion in English. England: Longman. Deakin University Press. Harris, Zellig. Heritage, J. Garfinkel and Ethnomethodology. London: OUP. Hookway, C. Hyme, D. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Jakobson, R. Style in Language. Kempson, R. Semiotic Theory. The Linguistics Encyclopedia. Morris, C. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Onadeko, T.
Studies in English Language. Ibadan: Enicrownfit. Osisanwo, W. Introduction to Discourse Analysis and Pragmatics. Lagos: Femolus-Fetop Sacks, H.
Schiffrin, D. Approaches to Discourse Analysis. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Searle, J. Sign In. Mazzaroth: Research work exploring ancient Astro-Theology as the basis for religion. Hall - Book First is available in our digital library an online access to it is set as public so you can get it instantly. Hall Submitted by: Jane Kivik. Upload date: September 20, The short answer is: You would not believe this, but Manly Palmer Hall got his info second hand from other books and hearsay.
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